"Water Environment Federation and WateReuse Association publication"--P. [4] of cover

Includes bibliographical references and index

Machine generated contents note: 1.Desalination Engineering: An Overview -- 1.1.Introduction -- 1.2.Terminology -- 1.3.Overview of Desalination Technologies -- 1.4.Thermal Desalination -- 1.4.1.Overview -- 1.4.2.Multistage Flash Distillation -- 1.4.3.Multiple-Effect Distillation -- 1.4.4.Vapor Compression -- 1.5.Membrane Desalination -- 1.5.1.Overview -- 1.5.2.Electrodialysis -- 1.5.3.Reverse Osmosis -- 1.6.References -- 2.Source Water Quality Characterization -- 2.1.Introduction -- 2.2.Watershed Sanitary Survey -- 2.3.Assessment of the Pathogen Content of Source Water -- 2.4.Overview of Source Water Constituents -- 2.5.Minerals -- 2.5.1.Mineral Content of Seawater -- 2.5.2.Mineral Content of Brackish Water -- 2.6.Dissolved Gases -- 2.7.Particulate Membrane Foulants -- 2.7.1.Description -- 2.7.2.Parameters and Measurement Methods -- 2.7.3.Threshold Levels of Particulate Foulants -- 2.8.Colloidal Membrane Foulants -- 2.8.1.Description -- 2.8.2.Parameters and Measurement Methods -- 2.8.3.Threshold Levels of Colloidal Foulants -- 2.9.Mineral Membrane-Scaling Foulants -- 2.9.1.Description -- 2.9.2.Parameters and Measurement Methods -- 2.9.3.Threshold Levels of Mineral Foulants -- 2.10.Natural Organic Foulants -- 2.10.1.Description -- 2.10.2.Parameters and Measurement Methods -- 2.10.3.Threshold Levels of Organic Foulants -- 2.11.Microbial Foulants -- 2.11.1.Description -- 2.11.2.Parameters and Measurement Methods -- 2.11.3.Threshold Levels of Microbial Foulants -- 2.12.Combined Impacts of Various Types of Foulants -- 2.13.Membrane Fouling Diagnostics -- 2.13.1.Laboratory Autopsy of Biofouled Membranes -- 2.14.Water Quality Analysis for RO Desalination -- 2.15.References -- 3.Fundamentals of Reverse Osmosis Desalination -- 3.1.Introduction -- 3.2.Reverse Osmosis Membrane Structures, and Materials -- 3.2.1.Conventional Thin-Film Composite Membrane Structure -- 3.2.2.Thin-Film Nanocomposite Membrane Structure -- 3.2.3.Cellulose Acetate Membranes -- 3.2.4.Aromatic Polyamide Membranes -- 3.3.Spiral-Wound, Hollow-Fiber, and Flat-Sheet RO Membrane Elements -- 3.3.1.Spiral-Wound RO Membrane Elements -- 3.3.2.Hollow-Fiber RO Membrane Elements -- 3.3.3.Flat-Sheet RO Membrane Elements -- 3.4.Reverse Osmosis System-General Description -- 3.4.1.Configuration -- 3.4.2.Reverse Osmosis Process Parameters -- 3.5.Models for Water and Salt Transport through Membranes -- 3.5.1.Overview -- 3.5.2.Nonporous Solution-Diffusion Transport Model -- 3.6.Membrane Performance Factors and Considerations -- 3.6.1.Concentration Polarization -- 3.6.2.Membrane Fouling -- 3.6.3.Flux Distribution within Membrane Vessels -- 3.6.4.Effect of Salinity on Membrane Performance -- 3.6.5.Effect of Recovery on Membrane Performance -- 3.6.6.Effect of Temperature on Membrane Performance -- 3.6.7.Effect of Feed Pressure on Membrane Performance -- 3.6.8.Effect of Permeate Back Pressure on Membrane Performance -- 3.7.Key Membrane Desalination Plant Components -- 3.7.1.General Overview -- 3.7.2.Plant Intake -- 3.7.3.Pretreatment -- 3.7.4.Reverse Osmosis Separation System -- 3.7.5.Post-Treatment -- 3.7.6.Desalination Plant Discharge Management -- 3.8.References -- 4.Planning Considerations -- 4.1.Introduction -- 4.2.Plant Service Area, Capacity, and Site -- 4.2.1.Service Area -- 4.2.2.Plant Capacity -- 4.2.3.Plant Site -- 4.3.Intake Type and Location -- 4.3.1.Brackish Water Intake Planning Considerations -- 4.3.2.Seawater Intake Planning Considerations -- 4.4.Source Water Quality -- 4.5.Product Water Quality -- 4.5.1.Water Quality of SWRO Desalination Plants -- 4.5.2.Water Quality of BWRO Desalination Plants -- 4.5.3.Disinfection By-Products in Desalinated Water -- 4.5.4.Blending of Desalinated Water in the Distribution System -- 4.5.5.Wastewater Treatment and Water Reuse Considerations -- 4.5.6.Selection of Target Product Water Quality -- 4.6.Plant Discharge -- 4.6.1.Concentrate -- 4.6.2.Spent Filter Backwash Water -- 4.6.3.Spent Membrane Cleaning Chemicals -- 4.7.Conceptual Plant Design -- 4.7.1.Scope -- 4.7.2.Selection of Key Treatment Processes -- 4.7.3.Equipment Selection -- 4.7.4.Treatment Process Validation and Optimization by Pilot Testing -- 4.7.5.Plant Configuration and Layout -- 4.7.6.Energy Use -- 4.7.7.Chemicals Used in Desalination Plants -- 4.8.Project Implementation Schedule and Phasing -- 4.8.1.Project Duration -- 4.8.2.Project Phasing -- 4.9.Project Economics -- 4.9.1.Effect of Plant Size on Project Costs -- 4.9.2.Concentrate Disposal and Plant Costs -- 4.9.3.Energy Use and Project Costs -- 4.9.4.Project Risks and Costs -- 4.10.Contractor Procurement for Project Implementation -- 4.10.1.Design-Bid-Build -- 4.10.2.Design-Build-Operate -- 4.10.3.Build-Own-Operate-Transfer -- 4.11.Project Funding -- 4.12.References -- 5.Environmental Review and Permitting -- 5.1.Introduction -- 5.2.Intakes-Environmental Impacts and Mitigation Measures -- 5.2.1.Open Intakes -- 5.2.2.Subsurface Intakes -- 5.3.Discharge-Environmental Challenges and Solutions -- 5.3.1.Salinity Increase beyond the Tolerance Thresholds of Aquatic Species -- 5.3.2.Concentration of Source Water Constituents to Harmful Levels -- 5.3.3.Discharge Discoloration and Low Oxygen Content -- 5.4.Greenhouse Gas Emissions Associated with Plant Operations -- 5.4.1.Introduction -- 5.4.2.Greenhouse Gas Emission Management -- 5.5.Traffic, Noise, and Other Auxiliary Impacts -- 5.6.Framework of Environmental Impact Assessment -- 5.6.1.Introduction -- 5.6.2.Project EIA Scoping -- 5.6.3.Project Definition -- 5.6.4.Environmental Analysis -- 5.6.5.Identification of Significant Environmental Impacts and Development of Mitigation Measures -- 5.7.Overview of the Desalination Project Permitting Process -- 5.8.Permits Related to Source Water Intake -- 5.8.1.Key Permitting Issues -- 5.8.2.Permitting Support Studies -- 5.9.Permits Related to Plant Discharge -- 5.9.1.Key Permitting Issues -- 5.9.2.Permitting Support Studies -- 5.10.Permits Related to Product Water Related -- 5.10.1.Key Permitting Issues -- 5.10.2.Permitting Support Studies -- 5.11.Other Permits -- 5.12.References -- 6.Intakes for Source Water Collection -- 6.1.Introduction -- 6.2.Open Intakes -- 6.2.1.Types and Configurations -- 6.2.2.Selection of Open Intake Type -- 6.2.3.Selection of Open Intake Location -- 6.2.4.Minimization of Impingement and Entrainment Impacts -- 6.2.5.Design Considerations -- 6.2.6.Costs of Open Intakes -- 6.3.Subsurface Intakes -- 6.3.1.Types and Configurations -- 6.3.2.Design Considerations -- 6.3.3.Costs of Subsurface Intakes -- 6.4.References -- 7.Intake Pump Stations -- 7.1.Introduction -- 7.2.Types and Configurations -- 7.2.1.Wet-Well Pump Stations -- 7.2.2.Dry-Well Pump Stations -- 7.2.3.Canned Pump Stations -- 7.3.Planning and Design Considerations -- 7.3.1.Pump Station Location -- 7.3.2.Pump Room Configuration -- 7.3.3.Inlet and Suction Well Configuration -- 7.3.4.Surge Analysis and Protection -- 7.3.5.Corrosion Protection -- 7.3.6.Water Quality Monitoring and Controls -- 7.4.Chemical Feed Systems -- 7.4.1.Sodium Hypochlorite Feed System -- 7.4.2.Sulfuric Acid Feed System -- 7.5.Intake Pump Station Construction Costs -- 7.6.References -- 8.Source Water Screening -- 8.1.Introduction -- 8.2.Bar, Band, and Drum Screens -- 8.2.1.Coarse Bar Screens (Bar Racks) -- 8.2.2.Fine Screens -- 8.3.Microscreens -- 8.3.1.Types and Configurations -- 8.3.2.Design Example -- 8.3.3.Microscreen Costs -- 8.4.Cartridge Filters -- 8.4.1.Types and Configurations -- 8.4.2.Planning and Design Considerations -- 8.4.3.Design Example -- 8.4.4.Cartridge Filter System Costs -- 8.5.References -- 9.Source Water Conditioning -- 9.1.Introduction -- 9.2.Coagulation -- 9.2.1.Types of Coagulation Chemicals and Feed Systems -- 9.2.2.Planning Considerations -- 9.2.3.Design Example -- 9.3.Flocculation -- 9.3.1.Types of Flocculation Chemicals and Feed Systems -- 9.3.2.Planning and Design Considerations -- 9.3.3.Design Example -- 9.4.Scale Inhibitors -- 9.4.1.Acids -- 9.4.2.Other Scale Inhibitors -- 9.5.Biocides -- 9.5.1.Sodium Hypochlorite -- 9.5.2.Chlorine Dioxide -- 9.5.3.Chloramines -- 9.5.4.Nonoxidizing Biocides -- 9.6.Dechlorination -- 9.7.Planning and Design Considerations for Source Water Conditioning -- 9.7.1.Properties of Commonly Used Source Water Conditioning Chemicals -- 9.7.2.Example Calculations -- 9.8.References -- 10.Sand Removal, Sedimentation, and Dissolved Air Flotation -- 10.1.Introduction -- 10.2.Sand Removal Systems -- 10.2.1.Settling Canals and Retention

Basins -- 10.2.2.Strainers -- 10.2.3.Cyclone Separators -- 10.3.Sedimentation Tanks -- 10.3.1.Introduction -- 10.3.2.Planning and Design Considerations -- 10.3.3.Design Example -- 10.4.Dissolved Air Flotation Clarifiers -- 10.4.1.Types and Configurations -- 10.4.2.Planning and Design Considerations -- 10.4.3.Design Example -- 10.5.Lamella Settler and DAF Clarifier Costs -- 10.6.References -- 11.Pretreatment by Granular Media Filtration -- 11.1.Introduction -- 11.2.The Filter Operation Cycle -- 11.2.1.Source Water Processing (Filtration) -- 11.2.2.Filter Media Backwash -- 11.3.Key Filtration System Components -- 11.3.1.Filter Cells -- 11.3.2.Filter Media -- 11.3.3.Media Support Layer and Filter Underdrain System -- 11.3.4.Service Facilities and Equipment -- 11.4.Filter Types and Configurations -- 11.4.1.Single-Medium and Dual- and Tri-Media Filters -- 11.4.2.Single- and Two-Stage Filters -- 11.4.3.Downflow and Upflow Filters -- 11.4.4.Filters Combined with Dissolved Air Flotation Clarifiers -- 11.4.5.Gravity and Pressure Filters -- 11.5.Filter Performance -- 11.5.1.Removal of Solids -- 11.5.2.Removal of Organics -- 11.5.3.Removal of Microorganisms -- 11.6.Source Water Pretreatment Prior to Granular Media Filtration -- 11.7.Planning and Design Considerations -- 11.7.1.Single-Stage Dual-Media Filters -- 11.7.2.Two-Stage Filters -- 11.7.3.Design Examples -- 11.8.Pretreatment System Costs -- 11.9.References -- 12.Pretreatment by Membrane Filtration -- 12.1.Introduction --

Note continued: 12.2.The Filtration Process -- 12.2.1.Processing (Filtration) -- 12.2.2.Backwash -- 12.2.3.Cleaning -- 12.2.4.Integrity Testing -- 12.3.Key Filtration System Components -- 12.3.1.Filter Vessels and Modules -- 12.3.2.Membrane Filtration Media -- 12.3.3.Service Facilities and Equipment -- 12.4.Filter Types and Configurations -- 12.4.1.Pressurized Membrane Systems -- 12.4.2.Submerged Membrane Systems -- 12.4.3.Comparison of Pressurized and Submerged Systems -- 12.5.Filter Performance -- 12.5.1.Removal of Solids -- 12.5.2.Removal of Organics -- 12.5.3.Removal of Microorganisms -- 12.6.Planning and Design Considerations -- 12.6.1.Source Water Turbidity -- 12.6.2.Source Water Organic Content -- 12.6.3.Source Water Temperature -- 12.7.Overview of Membrane Products Used for Saline Water Pretreatment -- 12.7.1.Norit (Pentair X-Flow) -- 12.7.2.Memcor (Siemens) -- 12.7.3.Hydranautics -- 12.7.4.GE Zenon -- 12.7.5.Other UF and MF Membrane Products -- 12.8.Design Examples -- 12.8.1.Submerged UF Pretreatment System -- 12.8.2.Pressure-Driven UF Pretreatment System -- 12.9.Pretreatment System Costs -- 12.10.References -- 13.Comparison of Granular Media and Membrane Pretreatment -- 13.1.Introduction -- 13.2.Effect of Source Water Quality on Performance -- 13.3.Surface Area Requirements -- 13.4.Quantity and Quality of Generated Residuals -- 13.5.Chemical Use -- 13.6.Power Use -- 13.7.Economy of Scale -- 13.8.Filtration Media Replacement Costs -- 13.9.Commoditization -- 13.10.Water Production Costs -- 13.11.Guidelines for Selecting a Pretreatment System -- 13.12.References -- 14.Reverse Osmosis Separation -- 14.1.Introduction -- 14.2.Filtered Water Transfer Pumps -- 14.3.High-Pressure Feed Pumps -- 14.3.1.Overview -- 14.3.2.Types of High-Pressure Pumps -- 14.4.Spiral-Wound Polyamide Membrane Elements -- 14.4.1.Overview -- 14.4.2.Nanofiltration (Water Softening) Elements -- 14.4.3.Brackish Water Desalination Elements -- 14.4.4.Seawater Desalination Elements -- 14.5.Pressure Vessels -- 14.5.1.Description -- 14.5.2.Membrane Vessel Classification -- 14.5.3.Alternative Membrane Configurations within the Vessels -- 14.6.RO System Piping -- 14.7.RO Skids and Trains -- 14.8.Energy Recovery Systems -- 14.8.1.Overview -- 14.8.2.Centrifugal Energy-Recovery Systems -- 14.8.3.Isobaric Energy-Recovery Systems -- 14.9.Membrane Flushing and Cleaning Systems -- 14.9.1.Membrane Flushing System -- 14.9.2.Membrane Cleaning System -- 14.10.Instrumentation and Controls -- 14.10.1.Overview -- 14.10.2.SCADA System -- 14.10.3.Plant Monitoring and Control -- 14.10.4.Instrumentation -- 14.11.RO System Types and Configurations -- 14.11.1.Overview -- 14.11.2.NF System Configurations -- 14.11.3.BWRO System Configurations -- 14.11.4.Seawater System Configurations -- 14.12.Planning and Design Considerations -- 14.12.1.General Design Methodology -- 14.12.2.Design Example: BWRO System -- 14.12.3.Design Example: SWRO System -- 14.13.RO System Desalination Costs -- 14.14.Desalination Systems with Large-Diameter RO Membranes -- 14.14.1.Large RO Membranes: Commercial Products -- 14.14.2.Key Features of Large RO Elements and Systems -- 14.15.References -- 15.Post-Treatment of Desalinated Water -- 15.1.Introduction -- 15.1.1.Remineralization for Corrosion Protection -- 15.1.2.Mineral Supplementation -- 15.1.3.Disinfection -- 15.1.4.Water Quality Polishing -- 15.1.5.General Product Water Quality Guidelines -- 15.1.6.Overview of Typical Post-Treatment System -- 15.2.Remineralization Systems -- 15.2.1.Remineralization by Chemical Addition -- 15.2.2.Remineralization by Mixing of Desalinated and Source Waters -- 15.2.3.Remineralization by Dissolving Minerals in Desalinated Water -- 15.3.Design Considerations for Lime Feed Systems -- 15.3.1.Key Design Criteria -- 15.3.2.Design and Operational Issues -- 15.4.Design Considerations for Carbon Dioxide Feed Systems -- 15.4.1.Key Design Criteria -- 15.4.2.Design and Operational Issues -- 15.5.Design Considerations for Limestone (Calcite) Contactors -- 15.5.1.Calcite Contactor Configuration -- 15.5.2.Design and Operational Issues -- 15.5.3.Calcite Beds with Continuous Feed -- 15.6.Impact of Remineralization on Product Water Quality -- 15.7.Design Examples -- 15.7.1.Example of Lime-Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System -- 15.7.2.Example of Calcite-Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System -- 15.8.Remineralization Costs -- 15.8.1.Overview of Construction Costs -- 15.8.2.Example Cost Estimate of Lime-Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System -- 15.8.3.Example Cost Estimate of Calcite-Carbon Dioxide Conditioning System -- 15.8.4.Costs of Remineralization Chemicals -- 15.9.Disinfection Systems -- 15.9.1.Chlorination -- 15.9.2.Chloramination -- 15.9.3.Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection -- 15.9.4.Ozonation -- 15.9.5.Ultraviolet Light Disinfection -- 15.9.6.Disinfection Byproducts Formation and Control -- 15.9.7.Chlorine Residual Stability and Product Water Quality -- 15.9.8.Design of Disinfection Systems -- 15.9.9.Disinfection System Costs -- 15.10.References -- 16.Desalination Plant Discharge Management -- 16.1.Introduction -- 16.2.Desalination Plant Discharge Characterization -- 16.2.1.Desalination Process Side Streams -- 16.2.2.Concentrate -- 16.2.3.Backwash Water -- 16.2.4.Membrane Flush Water -- 16.3.Surface Water Discharge of Concentrate -- 16.3.1.New Surface Water Discharge -- 16.3.2.Potential Environmental Impacts -- 16.3.3.Concentrate Treatment Prior to Surface Water Discharge -- 16.3.4.Design Guidelines for Surface Water Discharges -- 16.3.5.Costs for New Surface Water Discharge -- 16.3.6.Case Studies of New Surface Water Discharges -- 16.3.7.Co-disposal with Wastewater Effluent -- 16.3.8.Co-disposal with Power Plant Cooling Water -- 16.4.Discharge to Sanitary Sewer -- 16.4.1.Description -- 16.4.2.Potential Environmental Impacts -- 16.4.3.Effect on Sanitary Sewer Operations -- 16.4.4.Impact on Wastewater Treatment Plant Operations -- 16.4.5.Effect on Water Reuse -- 16.4.6.Design and Configuration Guidelines -- 16.4.7.Costs for Sanitary Sewer Discharge -- 16.5.Deep Well Injection -- 16.5.1.Description -- 16.5.2.Potential Environmental Impacts -- 16.5.3.Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment -- 16.5.4.Design and Configuration Guidelines -- 16.5.5.Injection Well Costs -- 16.6.Land Application -- 16.6.1.Description -- 16.6.2.Potential Environmental Impacts -- 16.6.3.Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment -- 16.6.4.Design and Configuration Guidelines -- 16.6.5.Land Application Costs -- 16.7.Evaporation Ponds -- 16.7.1.Description -- 16.7.2.Potential Environmental Impacts -- 16.7.3.Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment -- 16.7.4.Design and Configuration Guidelines -- 16.7.5.Evaporation Pond Costs -- 16.8.Zero Liquid Discharge Concentrate Disposal Systems -- 16.8.1.Description -- 16.8.2.Potential Environmental Impacts -- 16.8.3.Criteria and Methods for Feasibility Assessment -- 16.8.4.Design and Configuration Guidelines -- 16.8.5.Zero Liquid Discharge Costs -- 16.9.Beneficial Use of Concentrate -- 16.9.1.Technology Overview -- 16.9.2.Feasibility of Beneficial Reuse -- 16.10.Regional Concentrate Management -- 16.10.1.Types of Regional Concentrate Management Systems -- 16.10.2.Use of Brackish Water Concentrate in SWRO Plants -- 16.11.Nonconcentrate Side Stream Management -- 16.11.1.Backwash Water -- 16.11.2.Membrane Flush Water -- 16.12.Comparison of Concentrate Management Alternatives -- 16.12.1.Selection of Concentrate Management Approach -- 16.12.2.Costs -- 16.12.3.Environmental Impacts -- 16.12.4.Regulatory Acceptance -- 16.12.5.Ease of Implementation -- 16.12.6.Site Footprint -- 16.12.7.Reliability and Operational Constraints -- 16.12.8.Energy Use -- 16.13.References -- 17.Desalination Project Cost Estimates -- 17.1.Introduction -- 17.2.Overview of Water Production Costs -- 17.2.1.Cost of Water Produced by BWRO Desalination Plants -- 17.2.2.Cost of Water Produced by SWRO Desalination Plants -- 17.3.Capital Cost Estimates -- 17.3.1.Capital Cost Breakdown for BWRO Desalination Projects -- 17.3.2.Capital Costs Breakdown for SWRO Desalination Projects -- 17.3.3.Direct Capital (Construction) Costs -- 17.3.4.Indirect Capital Costs -- 17.4.Operation and Maintenance Cost Estimates -- 17.4.1.O&M Cost Breakdown for BWRO Desalination Plants -- 17.4.2.O&M Cost Breakdown for SWRO Desalination Plants -- 17.4.3.Power Costs -- 17.4.4.Chemical Costs -- 17.4.5.Labor Costs -- 17.4.6.Maintenance Costs -- 17.4.7.Membrane and Cartridge Filter

Replacement Costs -- 17.4.8.Plant Waste Stream Disposal Costs -- 17.4.9.Environmental and Performance Monitoring Costs -- 17.4.10.Indirect O&M Costs -- 17.5.Water Production Cost Estimate -- 17.5.1.Fixed Cost Components -- 17.5.2.Variable Cost Components -- 17.6.Example Cost Estimate -- 17.6.1.Project Description -- 17.6.2.Capital Costs -- 17.6.3.Operation and Maintenance Costs -- 17.6.4.Water Production Cost -- 17.7.References.

This Water Environment Federation and WateReuse Association publication provides comprehensive information on the planning and engineering of brackish and seawater desalination projects for municipal water supplies. After a brief overview of widely used desalination technologies, Desalination Engineering focuses on reverse osmosis desalination. The book discusses basic principles, planning and environmental review of projects, design and selection of key desalination plant components, desalinated water posttreatment, and concentrate management. Guidelines on sizing and cost estimation of desalination plant facilities are also included in this practical resource -- Source other than Library of Congress.